Microalbuminuria como marcador de daño renal en pacientes con hipertensión arterial / Microalbuminuria as a marker of kidney damage in patients with arterial hypertension

Introducción: La hipertensión arterial es un poderoso factor de riesgo de daño renal. La prevalencia es muy alta entre los pacientes con Enfermedad Renal Crónica. Objetivo: Determinar la presencia de Microalbuminuria y su valor como marcador de daño renal en pacientes con diagnóstico de Hipertensión arterial. Material y Métodos: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo, longitudinal y prospectivo de 123 pacientes. Se determinó edad, sexo, cifras de colesterol, triglicéridos, creatinina y microalbuminuria y factores de riesgo vascular. Se utilizó la estadística descriptiva e inferencial. Resultados: El 40,7 Microalbuminuria as a marker of kidney damage in patients with arterial hypertension de los pacientes pertenecen al grupo de más de 70 años con predominio del sexo masculino (65 por ciento), 62,6 Microalbuminuria as a marker of kidney damage in patients with arterial hypertension presentaron microalbuminuria, 97,3 Microalbuminuria as a marker of kidney damage in patients with arterial hypertension tenían factores de riesgo asociados con prevalencia aumentada del tabaquismo, dislipidemia, obesidad y enfermedades vasculares asociadas con RP>1. Predominó el grupo mayor de 70 años, del sexo masculino, con presencia de microalbuminuria. La presencia de más de tres factores de riesgo se asoció a la microalbuminuria. La presencia de microalbuminuria aumentó con los años de evolución de la enfermedad. Predominó el estadio 3 de la Enfermedad Renal Crónica en los pacientes con hipertensión arterial y microalbuminuria y se relacionó directamente con los años de evolución de la hipertensión arterial. Conclusiones: La determinación de la microalbuminuria en los pacientes con hipertensión arterial es un marcador de riesgo importante y sencillo para determinar el daño renal subclínico y está muy relacionado con el incremento de la edad del paciente, años de hipertensión y asociación con otros factores de riesgo vasculares(AU)

Introduction: Arterial hypertension is a powerful risk factor for kidney damage. The prevalence is very high among patients with chronic kidney disease. Objective: To determine the presence of microalbuminuria as a marker of kidney damage in patients with arterial hypertension admitted between September 2016 and September 2017. Material and Methods: A descriptive, longitudinal, prospective study was conducted in 123 patients. Age; sex; cholesterol, triglycerides, creatinine and microalbuminuria levels and vascular risk factors were determined. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used. Results: The 40.7 percent of patients belong to the group of patients of age more than 70 years, predominating the male sex (65 percent); 62.6 percent of them presented microalbuminuria and 97.3 percent had risk factors associated with an increased prevalence of smoking, dyslipidemia, obesity, and vascular diseases associated with RP> 1. The group of patients older than 70 years, male, and with presence of microalbuminuria predominated in the study. The presence of more than three risk factors was associated with microalbuminuria. The presence of microalbuminuria increased with the years of evolution of the disease. Stage 3 of chronic kidney disease predominated in patients with arterial hypertension and microalbuminuria and it was directly related to the years of evolution of arterial hypertension. Conclusions: The determination of microalbuminuria in patients with arterial hypertension is a simple and important risk marker to determine subclinical kidney damage and it is closely related to the increase in the age of the patient, the years of hypertension, and the association with other risk factors for vascular disease(AU)

Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in a population in southern Brazil (Pro-Renal Study) / Prevalência da doença renal crônica em uma população do Sul do Brasil (estudo Pro-Renal)

Abstract Introduction: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects 10-12% of the adult population in many countries. In Brazil, there is no reliable information about the actual prevalence of CKD. Objective: To determine the prevalence of CKD by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and proteinuria/albuminuria in an urban population randomly selected in Southern Brazil. Patients and Methods: 5,216 individuals were randomly selected out of a pool of 10,000 individuals identified from the database of a local energy company. The screening consisted of collection of demographic data, history of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, kidney/cardiovascular disease in the family and obesity through the body mass index - BMI (CKD risk factors). Blood samples were collected for determination of serum creatinine and subsequent eGFR estimation by the MDRD formula and urine samples for determination of albuminuria by dipstick. Albuminuria was further evaluated by HemoCue© in a selected CKD risk group. Results: The population was predominantly Caucasians (93%), 64% were females and the mean age of participants was 45 years old (18-87). BMI (kg/m2) was 27±5. Albuminuria was found in 5.25% of individuals. 88.6% of this population had no CKD (eGFR > 60 ml/min/1.73m2 & normoalbuminuria) and 11.4% were identified as having CKD, with majority on stages 3A (7.2%) and 3B (1.1%). Hypertension, diabetes, older age and obesity was associated with a higher prevalence of CKD (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The prevalence of CKD in an urban population in southern Brazil mirrors other developed countries and indicates that kidney disease is an important public health problem in Brazil.

Resumo Introdução: A doença renal crônica (DRC) afeta 10-12% da população adulta em muitos países. No Brasil, não há informações confiáveis sobre a prevalência real de DRC. Objetivo: Determinar a prevalência de DRC pela taxa de filtração glomerular estimada (eGFR) e albuminúria em uma população urbana selecionada aleatoriamente no sul do Brasil. Pacientes e Métodos: 5216 indivíduos foram selecionados aleatoriamente de um grupo de 10 mil indivíduos identificados a partir do banco de dados de uma empresa de energia local. O rastreio consistiu na coleta de dados demográficos, história de diabetes mellitus, hipertensão, doença renal/cardiovascular na família e obesidade pelo índice de massa corporal -IMC (fatores de risco da DRC). Foram coletadas amostras de sangue para determinação da creatinina sérica e subsequente estimativa de eGFR pela fórmula MDRD e amostras de urina para determinação da albuminúria por fita. Albuminúria foi confirmada por HemoCue© em um grupo de risco de CKD selecionado. Resultados: A população era predominantemente de caucasianos (93%), 64% eram do sexo feminino e a idade média dos participantes de 45 anos (18-87). O IMC (kg/m2) foi de 27 ± 5. Albuminúria foi encontrada em 5,25 % dos indivíduos. 88,6% dessa população não apresentou CKD (eGFR > 60 ml/min/1,73 m2 e normoalbuminúria) e 11,4% foram identificados como portadores de DRC, com maioria nos estádios 3A (7,2%) e 3B (1,1%). Hipertensão arterial, diabetes, idade avançada e obesidade foram associados a maior prevalência de DRC (p < 0,001). Conclusões: A prevalência de DRC em uma população urbana no sul do Brasil reflete outros países desenvolvidos e indica que a doença renal é um importante problema de saúde pública no Brasil.

Frecuencia de síndrome metabólico en niños y adolescentes del Paraguay / Frequency of metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents in Paraguay

La intención de la elección del tema de Síndrome Metabólico surge a raíz de la epidemia mundial de obesidad en la infancia y adolescencia observada en las últimas décadas, y que ha supuesto la aparición en pediatría de alteraciones hasta ahora más propias de la edad adulta, como el Síndrome Metabólico (SM) y que generen día a día numerosas complicaciones de salud como las Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (ECV) y Diabetes tipo 2. Se tienen como objetivo determinar la frecuencia de SM en niños y adolescentes del Paraguay y sus componentes. Se ha encontrado que el sobrepeso y la obesidad abdominal son los factores principales que contribuyen a las manifestaciones del Síndrome Metabólico en niños y adolescentes del Paraguay, por ese motivo corren mayor riesgo de sufrir enfermedades cardiovasculares y diabetes tipo 2 en el futuro y de forma más precoz. Se ha visto en estudios realizados en América que los componentes más prevalentes fueron la obesidad y la dislipidemia, mientras que; alrededor del 7% con hiperglucemia y síndrome metabólico de manera general. Según estudios realizados en Paraguay, se vio que la frecuencia de sobrepeso y obesidad es muy alta al igual que la incidencia del síndrome metabólico

The purpose of the choice of the Metabolic Syndrome issue arises from the worldwide epidemic of obesity in infancy and adolescence observed in the last decades, and which has led to the appearance in pediatrics of alterations that have hitherto been more typical of adulthood, Such as Metabolic Syndrome (MS) and that generate daily complications of health such as Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD) and Type 2 Diabetes. Its objective is to determine the frequency of MS in children and adolescents in Paraguay and its components. It has been found that overweight and abdominal obesity are the main factors that contribute to the manifestations of the Metabolic Syndrome in children and adolescents of Paraguay, for that reason they are at greater risk of suffering cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes in the future and in a more early. It has been seen in studies carried out in America that the most prevalent components were obesity and dyslipidemia, whereas; around 7% with hyperglycemia and metabolic syndrome in general. According to studies in Paraguay, it was found that the frequency of overweight and obesity is very high, as is the incidence of the metabolic syndrome

Microalbuminúria em população não diabética como marcador precoce de nefropatia / Microalbuminuria in non diabetic population as an marker of nephropathy

Resumo Introdução: Anos antes da evolução para diabetes mellitus tipo II, o paciente pode conviver com um período chamado pré-diabetes. A patogênese envolvida no pré-diabetes é a resistência à insulina. Objetivo: Discutir a frequência de microalbuminúria em população não diabética, porém com risco metabólico aumentado, e avaliar a existência de correlação da microalbuminúria com dados do metabolismo glicídico. Métodos: Foram incluídos no estudo 132 pacientes não diabéticos que apresentassem um ou mais fatores de risco para alteração do metabolismo glicídico: hipertensão arterial; obesidade; parentes em primeiro grau com diabetes; indivíduos das etnias hispano-americanas, asiáticas e afro-americanas; mães de recém-nascidos grandes para a idade gestacional (GIG) ou que apresentaram diabetes gestacional; dosagens séricas em jejum de HDL colesterol 250 mg/dL. Resultados: A frequência de microalbuminúria anormal para o método ocorreu em 16%, havendo presença de menores valores de HDL-colesterol e clearance de creatinina nessa mesma população. Considerando a amostra como um todo houve correlação positiva da microalbuminúria com a creatinina sérica e com o ácido úrico. Conclusão: Nosso estudo sugere que a microalbuminúria seja avaliada como marcador de nefropatia incipiente em população não diabética com risco metabólico aumentado.

Abstract Introduction: Years before the progression to diabetes mellitus type II patients can get by with a pre-diabetes called period. The pathogenesis involved pre-diabetes is insulin resistance Objective: This paper discusses the frequency of microalbuminuria in non-diabetic population, but with increased metabolic risk, and attempts to assess whether there is any correlation of microalbuminuria with data from glucose metabolism. Methods: A total of 132 nondiabetic patients who presented one or more risk factors for changes in glucose metabolism were included in the study: arterial hypertension; obesity; first-degree relatives with diabetes; individuals of Hispanic-American, Asian and African-American ethnicities; mothers of newborns who are large for gestational age (LGA) or who had gestational diabetes; serum measurements in fasting HDL cholesterol 250 mg/dL. Results: The results showed a frequency of abnormal microalbuminuria for the method in 16% of this population, and the presence of lower levels of HDL-cholesterol and creatinine clearance in this population. There was a positive correlation between microalbuminury and serum creatinine and uric acid. Conclusion: Our study suggests that microalbuminuria be evaluated as a marker of incipient nephropathy in non-diabetic population with increased metabolic risk.

Urinary Albumin Excretion and Vascular Function in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is associated with significant cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality. Increased urinary albumin excretion is a marker of CV risk. There are only few data on urinary albumin excretion in RA patients. Aim of the present study was to investigate urinary albumin excretion in RA patients and analyze, whether there is an association between urinary albumin excretion and vascular function as measured by the augmentation index (AIx). In a total of 341 participants (215 with RA, 126 without RA) urinary albumin-creatinine ratio (ACR) was determined and the AIx was measured. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov-test was used to cluster patient groups whose distributions of ACR can be considered to be equal. A crude analysis showed a median ACR of 6.6 mg/g in the RA group and 5.7 mg/g in patients without RA (P > 0.05). In order to account for diabetes (DM) we formed 4 distinct patient groups. Group 1: RA-/DM- (n = 74); group 2: RA+/DM- (n = 195); group 3: RA-/DM+ (n = 52); group 4: RA+/DM+ (n = 20). Clustering of these groups revealed two distinct patient groups: those without RA and DM, and those with either RA or DM or both. The latter group showed statistically significant higher ACR (median 8.1 mg/g) as the former (median 4.5 mg/g). We found no significant correlation between AIx and ACR. Urinary albumin excretion in patients with RA or DM or both is higher than in subjects without RA and DM. This can be seen as a sign of vascular alteration and increased CV risk in these patients.

Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in Korea: the Korean National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey 2011-2013

Chronic kidney disease is a leading public health problem related to poor quality of life and premature death. As a resource for evidence-informed health policy-making, we evaluated the prevalence of chronic kidney disease using the data of non-institutionalized adults aged ≥ 20 years (n = 15,319) from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in 2011-2013. Chronic kidney disease was defined as a urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio ≥ 30 mg/g or an estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 using the Chronic Kidney Disease-Epidemiology Collaboration equation. The total prevalence estimate of chronic kidney disease for adults aged ≥ 20 years in Korea was 8.2%. By disease stage, the prevalence of chronic kidney disease was as follows: stage 1, 3.0%; stage 2, 2.7%; stage 3a, 1.9%; stage 3b, 0.4%; and stages 4-5, 0.2%. When grouped into three risk categories according to the 2012 Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes guidelines, the proportions for the moderately increased risk, high risk, and very high risk categories were 6.5%, 1.2%, and 0.5%, respectively. Factors including older age, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, body mass indexes of ≥ 25 kg/m2 and < 18.5 kg/m2, and rural residential area were independently associated with chronic kidney disease. Based on this comprehensive analysis, evidence-based screening strategies for chronic kidney disease in the Korean population should be developed to optimize prevention and early intervention of chronic kidney disease and its associated risk factors.

Presença de microalbuminúria como fator de risco em pacientes diabéticos portadores de doença arterial coronária estável / Microalbuminuria as a risk factor in diabetic patients with stable coronary artery disease

A microalbuminúria é admitida como o principal marcadorpara o desenvolvimento de nefropatia diabética. Sua presençatambém é preditora independente de morbidade e mortalidadecardiovasculares. A relação da microalbuminúria com fatoresde risco clássicos para a doença multiarterial coronária (DAC)também tem sido mostrada em estudos epidemiológicos. Opresente estudo tem o objetivo de determinar a prevalênciade microalbuminúria em um grupo de pacientes diabéticosportadores de DAC e relacionar a sua presença com os fatoresclássicos de risco cardiovascular. Trata-se de um estudotransversal realizado com pacientes diabéticos portadoresde DAC, que realizam tratamento no Instituto do Coração(InCor-HCFMUSP). Foram avaliados os seguintes parâmetros:idade, presença ou ausência de HAS, tempo de diabetes,tabagismo, perfil lipídico, hemoglobina glicada e presença demicroalbuminúria/proteinúria, a partir da coleta urinária em24 horas. Os pacientes foram estratificados em três grupos,conforme o valor de albuminúria. Foram feitas análisesestatísticas comparando as diferentes variáveis entre os trêsgrupos. Nesta amostra de pacientes portadores de DM e DACmultiarterial estável, observou-se uma relação crescente entreos valores de albuminúria e o tempo de diabetes mellitus, níveisséricos de LDL-colesterol e triglicérides.

Microalbuminuria is accepted as a surrogate marker for thedevelopment of diabetic nephropathy. Its presence is alsoan independent predictor of cardiovascular morbidity andmortality. The relationship of microalbuminuria with classicrisk factors for coronary multivessel disease (CAD) has alsobeen shown in epidemiological studies. The present studyaims to determine the prevalence of microalbuminuria ina group of diabetic patients with CAD and correlate theirpresence with the classic cardiovascular risk factors. This isa cross-sectional study with diabetic patients with CAD whoperform treatment at the Heart Institute (Incor-HCFMUSP).We evaluated the following parameters: age, presence orabsence of hypertension, duration of diabetes, smoking, lipidprofile, glycated hemoglobin and microalbuminuria/proteinuriafrom urine collection in 24 hours. Patients were stratified into3 groups according to the value of albuminuria. Statisticalanalyzes were performed comparing the different variablesamong the three groups. In this sample of patients with diabetesand stable multivessel CAD there was a growing relationshipbetween the values of albuminuria and duration of diabetesmellitus, serum LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides.

Alteraciones metabólicas en hijos de padres con hipertensión arterial / Metabolic abnormalities in young offsprings of parents with essential hypertension

El antecedente familiar de hipertensión arterial en jóvenes sanos se ha asociado a hiperinsulinemia, que a su vez produciría aumento en el cortisol sérico, confluyendo ambos mecanismos en daño endotelial renal con la presencia de microalbuminuria. El objetivo del estudio consistió en evaluar en jóvenes sanos, hijos de hipertensos, la asociación entre los niveles de insulinemia, cortisol sérico y microalbuminuria, debido a su relación con mayor riesgo cardiovascular. Se realizó un trabajo transeccional y correlacional en la ciudad de Santa Fe, incluyendo 145 jóvenes sanos mayores de 18 años de edad, que se asignaron a dos grupos: aquellos con antecedente de primer grado de hipertensión arterial esencial (grupo de estudio) y sin dicho antecedente (grupo control). Se valoraron las concentraciones séricas en ayunas de insulina, cortisol, y los niveles de microalbuminuria en primera orina matutina. La media de edad fue de 20 ± 2.9 años, siendo el 58% mujeres. El grupo de estudio incluyó el 48% (n = 69). El 4.8% presentó insulino-resistencia, 13.8% microalbuminuria y el 52% hipercortisolinemia, no encontrándose diferencias significativas de los niveles séricos de insulina y cortisol, ni de microalbuminuria entre los grupos, así como tampoco correlación entre estas variables. No se encontró asociación entre el antecedente de 1er grado de hipertensión arterial y alteraciones de la homeostasis de insulina o cortisol así como tampoco evidencia de daño endotelial con presencia de microalbuminuria.

The familiar history of hypertension in healthy young offsprings is associated with hyperinsulinemia, which could lead to increased serum cortisol, resulting in renal endothelial damage and the presence of microalbuminuria. The aim of this study was to evaluate, in healthy young offsprings of hypertensive parents, association between insulin levels, serum cortisol and microalbuminuria attending to its relationship with increased cardiovascular risk. We performed a cross-sectional correlational study in Santa Fe, Argentina, including 145 healthy individuals aged over 18 years, allocated to two groups: those with a history of essential hypertensive parents (study group) and those without such history (control group). We evaluated fasting serum insulin, cortisol, and microalbuminuria levels in the first morning urine. The mean age was 20 ± 2.9 years, and 58% were women. The study group included 48% (n = 69) of the sample. 4.8% had insulin resistance, microalbuminuria 13.8% and 52% hipercortisolinemia, with no significant differences in serum insulin, cortisol, or microalbuminuria between groups. No correlation was found between these variables. In this study there was no association between a history of first degree hypertension and impaired insulin or cortisol homoeostasis.

Significance of Microalbuminuria in Relation to Subclinical Coronary Atherosclerosis in Asymptomatic Nonhypertensive, Nondiabetic Subjects

We aimed to investigate the significance of microalbuminuria and its relationship with subclinical atherosclerosis in nonhypertensive and nondiabetic patients, by using coronary artery computed tomography (CT). A total of 1,318 nonhypertensive and nondiabetic subjects who had taken coronary artery CT and measured spot urine albumin to creatinine ratio (UACR) were evaluated. The atherosclerotic changes of coronary arteries were greater in subjects with microalbuminuria, reflected by coronary artery calcium score (CACS) and significant coronary artery stenosis (CACS > or = 100 in 15.3% vs 7.6% and stenosis > or = 50% in 11.5% vs 4.9% of patients with vs without microalbuminuria, P = 0.008 and P = 0.011, respectively). Among various parameters that are known as a risk factor or possible biomarkers of coronary artery disease, presence of microalbuminuria, age and Framingham risk score were significantly related to coronary artery stenosis. Among them the presence of microalbuminuria showed stronger correlation than others to the coronary artery stenosis detected by CT, even after adjusting confounding factors (OR 3.397, 95% confidence interval 1.138 to 10.140, P = 0.028). The presence of microalbuminuria by UACR was significantly associated with presence of coronary artery stenosis > or = 50% in asymptomatic, nonhypertensive and nondiabetic general population. Our study suggests that the presence of microalbuminuria may imply subclinical coronary artery disease, even in asymptomatic population.

Microalbuminuria y factores de riesgo cardiovascular asociados en pacientes con hipertensión arterial sistémica. Subanálisis del estudio I-Search / Microalbuminuria and associated cardiovascular risk factors in patients with arterial systemic hypertension. A subanalysis of the I-Search study

Objetivo: Establecer la prevalencia de microalbuminuria en un grupo de pacientes con hipertensión arterial sistémica (HAS), para analizar la asociación entre este parámetro con factores de riesgo cardiovascular y el tratamiento para la HAS. Método: Es un sub-análisis con 564 pacientes de México, extraído de un estudio internacional, observacional y transversal seguidos por médicos especialistas. Se incluyeron pacientes con HAS, sin otras causas de microalbuminuria. Resultados: La microalbuminuria en estos pacientes tuvo una prevalencia de 63.8% (95% IC 58.4, 69.3) y correlaciona con una amplia variedad de factores de riesgo y enfermedades cardiovasculares concomitantes. La mayor parte de pacientes con microalbuminuria recibían ya tratamiento con antagonistas de los receptores de angiotensina II (50%), sin pretender establecer el impacto de los fármacos en los valores de microalbuminuria. Conclusiones:La prevalencia de pacientes con HAS y elevado riesgo cardiovascular es alta. Debido a ello, se justifica un tratamiento multifactorial capaz no sólo de controlar la presión arterial sino también de modificar los demás factores de riesgo cardiovascular presentes.

Objectives: To establish the prevalence of microalbuminuria in a group of patients with systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) to analyze the association between this parameter and cardiovascular risk factors as well as with SAH treatment. Methods: This is a sub-analysis of 564 patients of Mexico, extracted from an international, observational, and cross-sectional study followed by specialists, The study included patients with SAH without any other causes of microalbuminuria. Results: Microalbuminuria in these patients had a prevalence of 63.8% (95% IC 58.4, 69,3) and correlated with a wide variety of risk factors and concomitant cardiovascular diseases Most patients with microalbuminuria already received treatment with angiotensin II receptor antagonists (50%), without pretending to establish the impact of the drugs on the microalbuminuria values. Conclusion: The prevalence of patients with SAH and high cardiovascular risk is high in this study and justifies their management and care with multifactorial strategies aimed to adequately control their blood pressure and to modify other current cardiovascular risk factors.

Microalbuminuria and low hemoglobin as risk factors for the occurrence and increasing severity of diabetic retinopathy.

Aim: To assess the influence of urinary microalbuminuria and hemoglobin concentration on the occurrence and severity of diabetic retinopathy (DR), clinically significant macular edema (CSME) and hard exudate formation. Materials and Methods: In this prospective cross-sectional study carried out over a period of 2 years, type 2 diabetic patients seeking ocular evaluation for DR were assessed for presence and severity of DR, presence of hard exudates and CSME. Retinal findings were correlated to severity of microalbuminuria, hemoglobin concentration and other systemic risk factors using linear regression analysis. Results: Three hundred and six patients were included in the study. DR of any grade was seen in 132 (43%) patients, hard exudate formation in 93/306 (30.4%) patients, CSME in 50/306 (16.3%) patients and proliferative DR in 26/306 (8.5%) patients. Duration of diabetes (P <0.001), microalbuminuria (P <0.001) and low hemoglobin (P = 0.001) were found to be highly significant risk factors for the development and increasing severity of DR as well as for CSME and hard exudate formation. Conclusion: Microalbuminuria and low hemoglobin are strong predictors for DR, CSME and hard exudate formation in type 2 diabetics even after correcting for duration of diabetes and other systemic risk factors. Although not directly involved in the pathogenesis, microalbuminuria can help in identifying patients at risk for more severe diabetic eye disease. Microalbuminuria warrants intensive monitoring of both retinal and renal status. The hemoglobin levels should be monitored regularly in diabetic patients to detect and treat anemia, thereby reducing one risk factor for DR.

Microalbuminuria como elemento de predicción de nefropatía y riesgo cardiovascular en pacientes diabéticos / Microalbuminuria as predictor of nephropathy and cardiovascular risk factor among diabetic patients

Microalbuminuria, defined as urinary excretion of albumin in the range of 30-300 mg/g creatinine, affects 20-30 percent of the type 2 diabetic (DM2) patients and 30-40 percent of type 1 diabetic (DM1) patients who, without intervention, progress to macroalbuminuria at rates of 5 and 7.5 percent per year, respectively. Hyperglycemia, by activating different metabolic pathways and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, determines an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) which finally causes endothelial dysfunction. Albuminuria reflects a generalized endothelial dysfunction, that is related to cardiovascular disease in diabetic patients. Therefore, microalbuminuria becomes a predictor of renal damage, a coronary risk factor and a predictor of cardiovascular diseases. Several studies have demonstrated that progression of albuminuria can be prevented in normotensive and hypertensive DM1 and DM2 patients with the use of an inhibitor of angiotensin converting enzyme II or an antagonist of the angiotensin II receptor. These measures also provide cardiovascular protection in diabetic patients, an effect that is independent of the hypotensive action of the drug. In microalbuminuric diabetic patients, treatment should be oriented to diminish or avoid progression of microalbuminuria, and to maintain blood pressure, glucose and lipids within the recommended limits to avoid vascular and renal damage.

Transferências lipídicas para HDL em diabéticos tipo 2: associações com microalbuminúria, estatina e insulina / Transferencias lipídicas hacia HDL en diabéticos tipo 2: asociaciones con microalbuminuria, estatina y insulina / Lipid transfer to HDL in type-2 diabetic patients: associations with microalbuminuria, statin, and insulin

FUNDAMENTO: O diabete melito tipo 2 (DM2) é um fator de risco isolado para coronariopatia, principalmente quando associado à microalbuminúria (MA). Alterações estruturais e funcionais das lipoproteínas não são totalmente esclarecidas nesse contexto. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a transferência de lípides para HDL (T) em pacientes DM2 e a associação com a presença da MA e com o tratamento com estatina ou insulina. MÉTODOS: Estudamos 33 pacientes com DM2 e 34 controles pareados para idade. Uma nanoemulsão lipídica artificial radiomarcada com ³H-Triglicéride (TG) e 14C-colesterol livre (CL) ou ³H-colesterol éster (CE) e 14C-fosfolípide (FL) foi incubada com plasma. A nanoemulsão e as lipoproteínas foram precipitadas, exceto a HDL, que teve sua radioatividade contada. RESULTADOS: A TFL ( por cento) foi maior no grupo com DM2 que no grupo-controle (25,2±3,2 e 19,7±3,2 respectivamente; p < 0,001), assim como a TCL ( por cento): 9,1±2,7 e 6,3±1,5 respectivamente; p < 0,001. O diagnóstico de MA não se associou a mudanças da propriedade de transferência. O uso da insulina associou-se à menor TFL ( por cento): 23,5±2,1 contra 26,1±3,3; p = 0,018. Já o uso da estatina associou-se à queda de todas - TCE ( por cento): 3,5±0,9; TFL ( por cento):23,8±2,0; TTG ( por cento): 3,9±0,8; TCL ( por cento):7,4±1,3 - quando comparado ao grupo que não usava estatina (TCE ( por cento):5,9±2,4; TFL ( por cento):26,9±3,6; TTG ( por cento):6,4±2,2; TCL ( por cento):11,1±2,6). CONCLUSÃO: O DM2 aumentou a transferência de lípides de superfície para HDL, enquanto o uso de estatina diminuiu todas as transferências de lípides. A presença de MA não se associou às alterações das transferências de lípides.

BACKGROUND: Type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is an isolated risk factor for coronary artery disease, especially when associated with microalbuminuria (MA). Structural and functional changes in lipoproteins have not yet been fully elucidated in this context. OBJECTIVE: To assess lipid transfer (T) to HDL in type-2 diabetic patients and its association with microalbuminuria and treatment with statins or insulin. METHODS: Thirty-three patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus and 34 age-matched control subjects were studied. A synthetic cholesterol-rich nanoemulsion radiolabeled with ³H- triglycerides (TG) and 14C-free cholesterol (FC) or ³H- cholesteryl ester (CE) and 14C-phospholipids (PL) was incubated with plasma. Both the nanoemulsion and lipoproteins were precipitated, except for HDL, which was counted for radioactivity. RESULTS: PLT ( percent) was higher in the T2DM group than in the control group (25.2 ± 3.2 and 19.7 ± 3.2 respectively; p < 0.001), as was free cholesterol ( percent FC): 9.1 ± 2.7 and 6.3 ± 1.5 respectively; p < 0.001. The diagnosis of microalbuminuria (MA) was not associated with changes in lipid transfers. Insulin therapy was associated with lower PLT rates: 23.5 ± 2.1 versus 26.1 ± 3.3; p = 0.018. Statin therapy, in turn, was associated with a drop in all lipid transfers - CET 3.5 ± 0.9; PLT: 23.8 ± 2.0; TGT: 3.9 ± 0.8; FCT: 7.4 ± 1.3 - as compared to the group that was not on statin therapy (CET: 5.9 ± 2.4; PLT: 26.9 ± 3.6; TGT: 6.4 ± 2.2; FCT: 11.1 ± 2.6). CONCLUSION:Type-2 diabetes mellitus increased lipid transfer to HDL particles, whereas statin therapy decreased all lipid transfers. The presence of MA was not associated with changes in lipid transfer.

FUNDAMENTO: La diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2) es un factor de riesgo aislado para coronariopatía, principalmente cuando asociado a la microalbuminuria (MA). Alteraciones estructurales y funcionales de las lipoproteínas no están totalmente aclaradas en ese contexto. OBJETIVO: Evaluar no sólo la transferencia de lípidos hacia HDL (T) en pacientes DM2, sino también la asociación tanto con la presencia de la MA como con el tratamiento con estatina o insulina. MÉTODOS: Estudiamos a 33 pacientes con DM2 y 34 controles pareados para edad. Se incubó con plasma una nanoemulsión lipídica artificial radiomarcada con ³H-Triglicérido (TG) y 14C-colesterol libre (CL) o ³H-colesterol esterificado (CE) y 14C-fosfolípido (FL). Se procedió a la precipitación de la nanoemulsión y de las lipoproteínas, con excepción de la HDL, que tuvo su radioactividad contada. RESULTADOS: El valor de TFL ( por ciento) resultó mayor en el grupo con DM2 en confrontación con el grupo-control (25,2±3,2 y 19,7±3,2 respectivamente; p < 0,001); la TCL ( por ciento), por su vez, obtuvo los siguientes resultados: 9,1±2,7 y 6,3±1,5 respectivamente; p < 0,001. El diagnóstico de MA no se asoció a cambios de la propiedad de transferencia. El uso de la insulina se asoció al menor valor de TFL ( por ciento): 23,5±2,1 vs 26,1±3,3; p = 0,018. Ya el uso de la estatina se asoció a la baja del valor de todas las lipoproteínas - TCE ( por ciento): 3,5±0,9; TFL ( por ciento):23,8±2,0; TTG ( por ciento): 3,9±0,8; TCL ( por ciento):7,4±1,3 - si comparado al grupo que no usaba estatina (TCE ( por ciento):5,9±2,4; TFL ( por ciento):26,9±3,6; TTG ( por ciento):6,4±2,2; TCL ( por ciento):11,1±2,6). CONCLUSIONES: El DM2 aumentó la transferencia de lípidos de superficie hacia HDL, mientras que el uso de estatina disminuyó todas las transferencias de lípidos. La presencia de MA no se asoció a las alteraciones de las transferencias de lípidos.

Dosagem de microalbuminúria em hipertensos e em pacientes portadores de doença coronariana / Determination of microalbuminuria in hypertensive patients and in patients with coronary artery disease

FUNDAMENTO: A taxa normal de excreção de albumina em 24 horas é de 20 mg. A taxa persistente de 30 a 300 mg/dia é chamada de microalbuminúria (MA) e está relacionada com maior prevalência de doença cardiovascular. OBJETIVO: Determinar a prevalência de microalbuminúria em um grupo de hipertensos e em um grupo de portadores de doença coronariana; e determinar a relação da presença de microalbuminúria com hipertensão arterial, diabete melitus, dislipidemia, tabagismo e obesidade. MÉTODOS:: Determinamos a presença de microalbuminúria num grupo de hipertensos (73 indivíduos) e num grupo de coronariopatas (39 indivíduos), e comparamos com um grupo-controle (43 indivíduos). Considerou-se como microalbuminúria a relação albumina/creatinina maior que 30 e menor que 300 em amostra isolada de urina matinal. Na análise estatística, foram utilizados os testes do qui-quadrado e o teste exato de Fisher. RESULTADOS: A microalbuminúria esteve presente em 9,5 por cento dos hipertensos, em 33 por cento dos coronariopatas e não esteve presente em nenhum indivíduo do grupo-controle. Ao analisar a ocorrência de microalbuminúria segundo os diversos parâmetros clínicos, independentemente do grupo a que pertenciam, verificamos correlação estatisticamente significativa com idade, diabete e dislipidemia. CONCLUSÃO: 1) A prevalência de microalbuminúria em indivíduos hipertensos é elevada, sendo ainda mais elevada em portadores de doença coronariana; 2) existe correlação da presença de microalbuminúria com idade, diabete e dislipidemia.

BACKGROUND: The normal 24-hour albumin excretion rate is of 20 mg. A persistent rate of 30 to 300 mg/day is called microalbuminuria and is related to a higher prevalence of cardiovascular disease. OBJECTIVE: 1) To determine the prevalence of microalbuminuria in a group of hypertensive patients and in a group of patients with coronary artery disease; 2) To determine the relationship between the presence of microalbuminuria and hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, smoking and obesity. METHODS: The presence of microalbuminuria in a group of hypertensive patients (73 individuals) and in a group of patients with coronary artery disease (39 individuals) was determined and compared with a control group (43 individuals). Microalbuminuria was defined as an albumin/creatinine ratio higher than 30 and lower than 300 in a spot morning urine sample. The chi-square test and the Fisher’s exact test were used in the statistical analysis. RESULTS: Microalbuminuria was present in 9.5 percent of the hypertensive individuals and in 33 percent of the patients with coronary artery disease, and was absent in individuals of the control group. When the occurrence of microalbuminuria was analyzed according to the different clinical parameters, regardless of the group involved, a statistically significant correlation was found with age, diabetes and dyslipidemia. CONCLUSION: 1) The prevalence of microalbuminuria in hypertensive individuals is high, and is even higher in patients with coronary artery disease; 2) There is a correlation of the presence of microalbuminuria with age, diabetes and dyslipidemia.

Retinopathy and macro-albuminuria in type 2 diabetic patients.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the correlation between the development of retinopathy and macro-albuminuria and the other risk factors for the retinopathy in type 2 diabetic patients. MATERIAL AND METHOD: This is a cross-sectional study. The authors studied 201 patients suffering from diabetes type 2. Fundoscopy was performed by ophthalmologists. Macro-albuminuria was assessed by urine strip (URICAN). Duration of diabetes, hypertension, and history of peripheral neuropathy were also evaluated. RESULTS: The over all prevalence of retinopathy was 26.4% (53 patients). The diabetic retinopathy had significant correlation with the history of peripheral neuropathy (p = 0.01). There was no significant correlation between high blood pressure and retinopathy (p = 0.32). The prevalence of macro-albuminuria was 14.43% (30 patients). Diabetic retinopathy and macro-albuminuria were strongly correlated (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Macro-albuminuria is associated with diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetic patients and is a reliable marker for the retinopathy.

Nefropatia diabética e doença cardíaca / Diabetic nephropathy and cardiac disease

Pacientes em diferentes estágios de nefropatia diabética (ND) apresentam freqüentemente comprometimento cardíaco expresso por isquemia miocárdica e/ou cardiomiopatia diabética. Estas alterações já estão presentes em estágios iniciais da ND e provavelmente mesmo antes de a excreção urinária de albumina (EUA) atingir níveis tradicionalmente diagnósticos de microalbuminúria. As alterações cardíacas são responsáveis por uma proporção significativa de mortes nos pacientes com ND e podem ser reduzidas através de intervenção nos múltiplos fatores de risco cardiovascular encontrados nesses pacientes. A avaliação de doença cardíaca deve idealmente ser realizada em todos os pacientes com qualquer grau de ND através de métodos específicos para detectar isquemia e disfunção miocárdica, além do emprego rotineiro da monitorização ambulatorial da pressão arterial em 24 h. Em pacientes com aterosclerose avançada também devem ser avaliadas outras artérias (carótidas, aorta, renais). O tratamento rigoroso da hipertensão arterial, o uso de fármacos cardioprotetores, o tratamento da dislipidemia e da anemia, assim como o emprego de medicamentos anti-plaquetários, poderão reduzir a elevada mortalidade cardiovascular na ND.

Patients in different stages of diabetic nephropathy (DN) frequently present cardiac disease expressed by myocardial ischemia and/or diabetic cardiomyopathy. These changes are already present at early stages of DN, probably even before urinary albumin excretion (UAE) reaches the traditionally diagnostic levels of microalbuminuria. The cardiac changes are responsible for a significant proportion of the increased death rates in patients with DN and can be reduced through multiple intervention on the several risk factors present in these patients. Cardiac disease assessment should ideally be performed in every patient, irrespective of renal status, through specific methods to detect ischemia and myocardial dysfunction, besides routinely performing 24-h ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. In patients with advanced atherosclerosis, other arteries (aorta, carotid, renal) should be evaluated as well. Intensive treatment of arterial hypertension, and use of cardioprotective drugs, correction of the associated dyslipidemia and anemia, and use of antiplatelet agents can reduce the elevated cardiovascular mortality in patients with DN.

Fatores preditivos de hipertensão gestacional em adolescentes primíparas: análise do pré-natal, da MAPA e da microalbuminúria / Predictive factors for pregnancy hypertension in primiparous adolescents: analysis of prenatal care, ABPM and microalbuminuria / Predictive factors for pregnancy hypertension in primiparous adolescents: analysis of prenatal care, ABPM and microalbuminuria

OBJETIVO: Quantificar a prevalência de HG em adolescentes primíparas; definir fatores de preditividade para a ocorrência de HG e sua repercussão nos recém-nascidos. MÉTODOS: Foram acompanhadas 29 adolescentes primíparas durante o pré-natal até a 12ª semana de puerpério, com idade média de dezesseis anos, do ambulatório do Serviço de Adolescentes da Maternidade Escola Assis Chateaubriand (MEAC) da Universidade Federal do Ceará (Fortaleza). As gestantes foram dividas em dois grupos; ou seja, nas que permaneceram normotensas (Grupo I) e naquelas que desenvolveram hipertensão gestacional -HG - (Grupo II). As variáveis investigadas na avaliação de valor de preditividade no desenvolvimento de HG foram valores antropométricos, aspectos socioeconômicos, o hábito de fumar, a hereditariedade para HAS (pai/mãe), os exames do pré-natal solicitados na primeira consulta do pré-natal e a microalbuminúria e a monitorização ambulatorial da pressão arterial (MAPA) na 28ª semana de gestação. As gestantes foram acompanhadas no parto e no puerpério tardio (12ª semana de puerpério). Os recém-nascidos das mães do nosso estudo foram avaliados ao nascer pelos índices de APGAR e de Capurro, peso, estatura e pela presença de hipóxia perinatal. RESULTADOS: A prevalência de HG foi de 51,7 por cento . A hereditariedade para HAS apresentou-se com o maior valor de preditividade para HG com odds ratio de 10,99. A pressão arterial diastólica maior ou igual a 70 mmHg, na idade média gestacional de 35 semanas, apresentou significância estatística como valor de preditividade para HG. Na MAPA encontramos valor de preditividade para HG: carga pressórica diastólica em vigília, carga pressórica sistólica e diastólica no sono noturno, variabilidade pressórica e pressão máxima diastólica no sono. Especificamente a pressão arterial diastólica (PAD) máxima na MAPA no período do sono noturno ³64 mmHg apresentou odds ratio de 6 para HG com sensibilidade de 80 por cento e especificidade de 60 por cento para o desenvolvimento de HG...

OBJECTIVE: To quantify PH prevalence in primiparous adolescents; define predictive factors for the occurrence of PH and its impact on newborns. METHODS: We followed 29 primiparous adolescents from the prenatal period through the 12th week of the puerperium, with a mean of sixteen years of age, served at the Outpatient Facility for Adolescents of Maternidade Escola Assis Chateaubriand (MEAC) of Universidade Federal do Ceará (Fortaleza, Brazil). The pregnant adolescents were divided into two groups, that is, those who remained normotensive (Group I) and those who developed PH (Group II). The variables investigated in the assessment of the value of predictability for the development of PH were anthropometric measures, socioeconomic aspects, smoking habit, inheritance for SAH (father/mother), prenatal tests requested in the first prenatal care visit in addition to microalbuminuria and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) in the 28th week of gestation. The pregnant adolescents were followed up at delivery and late puerperium (12th week after the puerperium). The newborns to the mothers included in our study were assessed at birth according to the Apgar score and the Capurro method, for weight, height and perinatal hypoxia. RESULTS: The prevalence of PH was 51.7 percent. Inheritance for SAH presented the highest predictive value for PH with an odds ratio of 10.99. Diastolic arterial pressure equal to or above 70 mmHg at the gestational age of 35 weeks was statistically significant as a predictive value for PH. At ABPM we found a predictive value for PH: diastolic pressure load during alertness, diastolic and systolic pressure load during night sleep, pressure variability and maximum diastolic pressure during sleep. Specifically a maximum diastolic arterial pressure (DAP) at ABPM during the period of night sleep ³64 mmHg presented an odds ratio of 6 for PH with a sensitivity of 80 percent and a specificity of 60 percent for the development of PH...

Proliferative diabetic retinopathy is associated with microalbuminuria in patients with type 2 diabetes

Diabetic retinopathy is one of the leading causes of blindness in working-age individuals. Diabetic patients with proteinuria or those on dialysis usually present severe forms of diabetic retinopathy, but the association of diabetic retinopathy with early stages of diabetic nephropathy has not been entirely established. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 1214 type 2 diabetic patients to determine whether microalbuminuria is associated with proliferative diabetic retinopathy in these patients. Patients were evaluated by direct and indirect ophthalmoscopy and grouped according to the presence or absence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. The agreement of diabetic retinopathy classification performed by ophthalmoscopy and by stereoscopic color fundus photographs was 95.1 percent (kappa = 0.735; P < 0.001). Demographic information, smoking history, anthropometric and blood pressure measurements, glycemic and lipid profile, and urinary albumin were evaluated. On multiple regression analysis, diabetic nephropathy (OR = 5.18, 95 percent CI = 2.91-9.22, P < 0.001), insulin use (OR = 2.52, 95 percent CI = 1.47-4.31, P = 0.001) and diabetes duration (OR = 1.04, 95 percent CI = 1.01-1.07, P = 0.011) were positively associated with proliferative diabetic retinopathy, and body mass index (OR = 0.90, 95 percent CI = 0.86-0.96, P < 0.001) was negatively associated with it. When patients with macroalbuminuria and on dialysis were excluded, microalbuminuria (OR = 3.3, 95 percent CI = 1.56-6.98, P = 0.002) remained associated with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Therefore, type 2 diabetic patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy more often presented renal involvement, including urinary albumin excretion within the microalbuminuria range. Therefore, all patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy should undergo an evaluation of renal function including urinary albumin measurements.